Sistema de comércio do Atlântico Norte
O comércio transatlântico de escravos é indizível na história universal da escravidão por três razões principais:
sua duração - aproximadamente quatro séculos que os vicitimized: homens negros africanos, mulheres.
e crianças a legitimação intelectual tentada em seu favor - o desenvolvimento de uma ideologia anti-negra e sua organização legal, o notório Code noir.
Como um empreendimento comercial e econômico, o tráfico de escravos fornece um exemplo dramático das conseqüências resultantes de interseções particulares de história e geografia. Envolveu várias regiões e continentes: África, América, Caribe, Europa e Oceano Índico.
O comércio transatlântico de escravos é frequentemente considerado o primeiro sistema de globalização. Segundo o historiador francês Jean-Michel Deveau, o tráfico de escravos e consequentemente a escravidão, que durou do século XVI ao XIX, constituem uma das "maiores tragédias da história da humanidade em termos de escala e duração".
O comércio transatlântico de escravos, muitas vezes conhecido como o comércio triangular, ligava as economias de três continentes. Estima-se que entre 25 e 30 milhões de pessoas, homens, mulheres e crianças, foram deportados de suas casas e vendidos como escravos nos diferentes sistemas de comércio de escravos. Somente no comércio transatlântico de escravos, estima-se que a estimativa dos deportados seja de aproximadamente 17 milhões. Esses números excluem aqueles que morreram a bordo dos navios e no curso de guerras e invasões ligadas ao comércio.
Capítulo 03 - América do Norte no Mundo Atlântico, 1640-1720.
Entre 1640 e 1720, as colônias do continente tornaram-se cada vez mais envolvidas em uma rede de comércio e contatos internacionais que levaram à expansão territorial e ao crescimento econômico. A introdução da escravidão, a mudança das relações com a Inglaterra e os conflitos com os vizinhos moldaram esse desenvolvimento colonial.
II. As colônias de restauração.
Seis novas colônias proprietárias, conhecidas como as colônias de restauração, foram fundadas durante o reinado de Carlos II (1660-1685).
Charles deu a seu irmão mais novo, o duque de York, a reivindicação da área que os holandeses haviam estabelecido anteriormente como Nova Holanda.
C. As Leis do Duque.
Proclamada pelo Duque de York em 1665, as Leis de Duke toleravam a manutenção das práticas legais holandesas e permitiam que cada cidade em Nova York decidisse qual igreja apoiar com suas receitas fiscais. No entanto, nenhuma provisão foi feita para uma montagem representativa.
D. Fundação de Nova Jersey.
O duque de York regrediu grande parte de sua terra a dois amigos, limitando assim a extensão geográfica e o crescimento econômico de Nova York.
E. Pennsylvania: Um Quaker Haven.
Carlos II deu a William Penn uma bolsa em 1681 para pagar uma dívida que ele devia ao pai de Penn. Membro principal da Sociedade dos Amigos, William Penn procurou estabelecer uma colônia tolerante, humana e dinâmica.
Política Indiana de F. William Penn.
Penn tentou tratar os indianos de forma justa, o que por sua vez atraiu muitos imigrantes indianos para sua colônia. Esses recém-chegados muitas vezes entraram em confronto com os europeus também atraídos pelas políticas da Penn.
G. Fundação da Carolina.
Charles fretou Carolina em 1663. A região norte permaneceu ligada à Virgínia e desenvolveu-se diferentemente do que a área ao redor de Charleston.
III 1670-1680: uma década de crise.
A. Nova França e os iroqueses.
Os franceses reivindicaram os Grandes Lagos e o Vale do Mississippi. Essa expansão levou a França a entrar em conflito com a Confederação Iroquesa, que exerceu grande influência no que se tornou o nordeste dos Estados Unidos. A competição pelo comércio europeu desencadeou uma série de guerras na região que duraram até 1701.
B. Expansão Francesa no Vale do Mississippi.
Depois que os franceses fundaram Nova Orleans em 1718, seus postos ao longo do Mississippi se tornaram a cola do império.
C. Popé e a Revolta Pueblo.
O ressentimento com o tratamento espanhol levou um xamã chamado Popé a liderar uma revolta entre os índios Pueblo em 1680. Essa revolta foi a resistência indiana mais bem-sucedida na América do Norte.
D. As posses norte-americanas da Espanha.
Ao usar fortes e missões, a Espanha expandiu suas propriedades para incluir a Califórnia e o Texas.
E. Pressões populacionais na Nova Inglaterra.
O aumento populacional na área da Nova Inglaterra colocou grande pressão sobre a terra disponível.
F. Guerra do Rei Filipe.
Preocupado com a invasão dos colonos ingleses, o rei Filipe, chefe dos Pokanokets, liderou uma sangrenta guerra na Nova Inglaterra em 1675-1676.
Rebelião de G. Bacon.
Conflito entre colonos ingleses e indianos na Virgínia se transformou em uma luta política entre Nathaniel Bacon e o governador William Berkeley.
IV. A introdução da escravidão africana.
A. Problemas de fornecimento de mão-de-obra no Chesapeake.
Como menos homens e mulheres ingleses vieram para Chesapeake como servos contratados, os produtores de tabaco de Chesapeake procuraram uma nova fonte de trabalho para suas plantações.
B. Por que escravidão africana?
A escravidão fora praticada na Europa (embora não na Inglaterra) durante séculos. Os cristãos europeus também acreditavam que a escravização dos povos pagãos era justificável.
C. Crioulos Atlânticos nas Sociedades com Escravos.
Nas primeiras colônias inglesas, os residentes de ascendência africana variavam em status. Essas primeiras colônias do continente foram caracterizadas como "sociedades escravas" em oposição às "sociedades escravistas".
D. O Começo das Sociedades de Escravos Continentais.
Os colonos do continente começaram a importação em larga escala de africanos na década de 1670, a princípio trazendo escravos das ilhas caribenhas, mas acabaram levando-os diretamente da África.
V. A Teia do Império e o Comércio de Escravos do Atlântico.
A. Atlantic Trading System.
O tráfico de escravos tornou-se o eixo de uma complicada rede de troca que unia os povos do Atlântico.
B. Nova Inglaterra e Caribe.
A venda de alimentos e produtos de madeira da Nova Inglaterra para plantadores de açúcar no Caribe proporcionou aos habitantes da Nova Inglaterra uma importante fonte de renda.
C. A Tragédia Humana do Tráfico de Escravos.
Esta viagem que transportou africanos para as Américas provou ser particularmente mortal, com altos percentuais de escravos negros e superintendentes brancos morrendo na África ou no mar.
D. África Ocidental e o Tráfico de Escravos.
A África Ocidental experimentou profundas mudanças demográficas por causa do tráfico de escravos. Além disso, alguns reis africanos consolidaram seu poder político como resultado do papel que desempenharam no comércio.
E. Rivalidades Europeias e o Tráfico de Escravos.
Os europeus se beneficiaram mais com o tráfico de escravos e suas economias mudaram do comércio na Ásia e no Mediterrâneo para o comércio do Atlântico. Além disso, tentativas de controlar o tráfico de escravos causaram rivalidades entre as nações européias.
A Inglaterra usou suas colônias em uma tentativa de se tornar auto-suficiente, mantendo uma balança comercial favorável com outros países.
G. Atos de Navegação.
O parlamento tentou avançar suas políticas mercantilistas por meio de uma série de leis de comércio aprovadas entre 1651 e 1673. Esses atos, que fizeram da Inglaterra o centro de todo o comércio, encontraram resistência na América do Norte.
H. Junta Comercial e Plantações.
Em 1696, o Parlamento esperava melhorar sua administração sobre as colônias quando estabeleceu a Junta Comercial e as Plantações.
VI. Escravização na América do Norte.
A. Escravização no Chesapeake.
Em 1710, os africanos representavam 20% da população em Chesapeake.
B. Impacto da Escravidão no Chesapeake Anglo-Americano.
Essa concentração de escravos influenciou as atividades econômicas, os padrões demográficos e os valores sociais da região.
C. Escravidão na Carolina do Sul.
O grande número de escravos na Carolina do Sul, juntamente com semelhanças nos climas da África Ocidental e da colônia, ajudou a garantir a sobrevivência da cultura africana.
D. Arroz e Indigo.
A Carolina do Sul desenvolveu uma economia de arroz baseada principalmente em habilidades trazidas por africanos escravizados. O índigo também floresceu por causa do conhecimento adquirido pelos escravos das índias Ocidentais.
E. Escravidão indiana na Carolina do Norte e do Sul.
Os índios estavam entre as muitas pessoas mantidas em escravidão nas duas Carolinas. A amargura sobre o comércio de escravos indianos causou a Guerra Tuscarora.
Os abusos associados ao comércio de escravos indianos também levaram à Guerra de Yamasee na Carolina do Sul.
G. Escravos na América do Norte espanhola.
Autoridades espanholas na Flórida em 1693 ofereceram liberdade aos escravos fugitivos que se converteriam ao catolicismo.
H. Escravos na Louisiana francesa.
Tanto os africanos quanto os indígenas eram escravizados na Louisiana francesa, mas a Louisiana continuava sendo uma sociedade com escravos em vez de uma sociedade escravista.
I. Escravização no Norte.
O envolvimento das colônias do norte no comércio de escravos assegurou que muitas pessoas de ascendência africana vivessem naquela região.
VII. Desenvolvimento Político Colonial, Reorganização Imperial e Crise da Bruxaria.
A. Estruturas Políticas Coloniais.
Cada uma das colônias geralmente tinha um governador, alguma forma de conselho e uma assembléia. Instituições políticas locais, como reuniões de cidades ou tribunais de condado, também se desenvolveram na América.
B. Uma tradição de autonomia desafiada.
James II e seus sucessores tentaram endurecer as rédeas do governo reduzindo a autonomia política das colônias.
C. Domínio da Nova Inglaterra.
James II tentou fortalecer o controle real sobre as colônias da Nova Inglaterra, criando o Domínio da Nova Inglaterra em 1686.
D. Revolução Gloriosa na América.
As notícias da Revolução Gloriosa encorajaram os novos habitantes da Inglaterra a derrubar o governador Edmund Andros.
E. Guerra do Rei Guilherme.
Uma guerra com os franceses e seus aliados algonquianos contribuiu para os problemas da Nova Inglaterra.
F. A Crise de Feitiçaria de 1692.
A caça às bruxas eclodiu em Salem, Massachusetts, em 1692. O incidente intenso, mas de curta duração, refletiu o estresse social e político do dia.
G. Alojamento para o Império.
Embora os colonos se ressentissem da nova ordem imperial, eles se ajustaram às suas exigências e restrições.
Comércio Atlântico e a economia europeia por Guillaume Daudin.
Introdução.
A maior parte do comércio intercontinental europeu passou pelo Atlântico durante o período do início da modernidade, com exceção do comércio mediterrâneo e do comércio de caravanas através da massa de terra eurasiana, ambos em relativo declínio. Tanto a ascensão ao primado da economia européia quanto o aumento do comércio atlântico foram acontecimentos importantes na história do mundo. A tentação de ligar esses dois eventos tem sido muito alta na história popular e acadêmica desde o século XIX. O debate sobre sua relação ainda não está resolvido, porque não há um acordo geral sobre as causas e características da divergência da Europa em relação a outras economias do Velho Mundo ou sobre os benefícios que o comércio intercontinental proporcionou às economias européias. Esta bibliografia fornece fontes que discutem o efeito do comércio atlântico sobre as economias européias. A consideração da Europa como um todo provavelmente engana, pois todos os países - e provavelmente todas as regiões - tinham uma interação específica com o Atlântico. Esta entrada fornece leituras sobre a experiência na Grã-Bretanha, Dinamarca-Noruega, França, Alemanha, Holanda, Portugal, Suécia e Espanha. A experiência da Grã-Bretanha é tão importante para a história da economia européia que esta entrada não estaria completa sem algumas leituras sobre o efeito do comércio atlântico sobre a Revolução Industrial Britânica.
Visão Geral.
Acemoglu et al. 2005 convenceu muitos economistas de que o comércio atlântico era um importante catalisador do crescimento econômico na Europa Moderna. Poucos estudos fornecem uma visão geral de toda a experiência européia com o comércio atlântico. Braudel 1992 e Wallerstein 1974–2001 são duas metanarrativas do crescimento europeu e sua relação com o resto do mundo que são mais impressionantes como obras descritivas do que como análises. Findlay e O’Rourke 2007 é uma boa síntese recente que pode ser usada como ponto de partida para o resto da literatura. Emmer et al. 2006 reúne diferentes fontes que fornecem bons pontos de partida para o estudo da experiência de cada país. O’Brien e Prados de la Escosura 1998 fizeram o mesmo durante um período mais longo. Esta coleção de papéis é mais focada, mas não trata os países escandinavos. Socolow 1996 e Black 2006 são reimpressões de importantes publicações sobre, respectivamente, o tráfico de escravos e os demais negócios no Atlântico. Magnusson 2008 é uma coleção útil de textos mercantilistas dos séculos XVII e XVIII que defendem a importância do comércio para a prosperidade das economias européias.
Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson e James A. Robinson. “A Ascensão da Europa: Comércio Atlântico, Mudança Institucional e Crescimento Econômico”. American Economic Review 95.3 (2005): 546–579.
Fornece um teste econométrico para a hipótese de que o comércio atlântico era importante para o crescimento europeu porque encorajava o surgimento de boas instituições em países onde as instituições iniciais eram suficientemente boas.
Black, Jeremy, ed. O comércio de escravos do Atlântico. 4 vols. Aldershot, Reino Unido: Ashgate, 2006.
Os quatro volumes reúnem reimpressões de numerosos artigos sobre o tráfico atlântico de escravos nos séculos XVI, XVII, XVIII e XIX, respectivamente. A maioria dos artigos, que datam de 1940 a 2004, estão disponíveis on-line, mas o trabalho de seleção é muito valioso.
Braudel, Fernand. Civilização e capitalismo, séculos XV a XVIII. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
Cada volume trata um dos três níveis de atividade econômica: vida material (atividades rotineiras de consumo e produção, por exemplo, novos bens de consumo provenientes do comércio atlântico), economia de mercado (atividades de troca onde prevalecem as regras do mercado: foco no lucro do comércio atlântico) e o capitalismo (atividades de intercâmbio em larga escala dominadas pela política, pelos monopólios e pelos altos lucros: o foco está na história da expansão do Atlântico europeu). O livro argumenta que o comércio colonial e o comércio atlântico são centrais para o desenvolvimento do capitalismo na economia mundial.
Emmer, Pieter, Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau e Jessica Roitman, eds. Um Deus Ex Machina Revisitado: Comércio Colonial Atlântico e Desenvolvimento Econômico Europeu. Atlantic World 8. Leiden, Países Baixos: Brill, 2006.
Fornece uma abordagem minuciosa em relação ao papel do comércio atlântico na Europa, incluindo artigos sobre países específicos (Espanha, Portugal, Holanda, Grã-Bretanha, França, Dinamarca-Noruega e Suécia) e artigos mais gerais, por exemplo, sobre as estatísticas do comércio colonial e sua importância nas metanarrativas da Grande Divergência.
Findlay, Ronald e Kevin H. O'Rourke. Poder e abundância: comércio, guerra e a economia mundial no segundo milênio. História econômica de Princeton do mundo ocidental. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.
Um trabalho geral muito interessante sobre o comércio mundial e seu papel econômico de 1000 até agora. Os capítulos 4 a 7 abrangem o comércio com o Novo Mundo e seus efeitos na Europa até o século XIX, com discussões específicas sobre o fluxo de espécies, o mercantilismo e a relação entre o comércio e a Revolução Industrial Britânica.
Magnusson, Lars, ed. Teoria e Prática Mercantilista: A História do Mercantilismo Britânico. 4 vols. Londres: Pickering e Chatto, 2008.
Uma coleção de textos fac-símile dos séculos 17 e 18, juntamente com comentários editoriais. Os volumes 2 e 3 (Comércio Exterior: Regulamentação e Prática, e o Sistema Colonial) fornecem textos discutindo as vantagens do comércio atlântico para a prosperidade das nações européias. É uma pena que nenhuma fonte equivalente exista para outros países.
O'Brien, Patrick K. e Leandro Prados de la Escosura, eds. Edição especial: Os custos e benefícios do imperialismo europeu da conquista de Ceuta, 1415, ao Tratado de Lusaka, 1974. La Revista de Historia Económica 16.1: 1998.
Coleção de artigos preparados para a Sessão AI, Décimo Segundo Congresso Internacional de História Econômica, Madri, de 24 a 28 de agosto de 1998, juntamente com uma longa e interessante introdução pelos editores. Abrange grande parte da Europa, com exceção dos países escandinavos. Disponível online para assinantes.
Socolow, Susan M., ed. Comércio Básico Atlântico. 2 vols. Expansão Mundial 9. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1996.
O primeiro volume reúne reimpressões sobre comércio e política (especialmente a competição comercial entre os diferentes atores da economia atlântica). O segundo volume reúne estudos de casos de comércio básico e de luxo (por exemplo, madeira de lei, arroz, tabaco e cochonilha).
Wallerstein, Immanuel. O sistema do mundo moderno. 3 vols. Estudos em Descontinuidade Social. Nova York: Academic Press, 1974-2001.
O primeiro volume trata o século XVI, o segundo a era mercantilista (1600-1750) e o último a Revolução Industrial. A tese principal é que o lugar central da Europa no “sistema mundial moderno” e suas relações com a periferia estão no centro de sua bem-sucedida divergência econômica.
Usuários sem assinatura não podem ver o conteúdo completo nesta página. Por favor, assine ou faça o login.
Como se inscrever.
O Oxford Bibliographies Online está disponível por assinatura e acesso perpétuo às instituições. Para mais informações ou para entrar em contato com um representante de vendas da Oxford, clique aqui.
Capítulo 03 - América do Norte no Mundo Atlântico, 1640-1720.
Entre 1640 e 1720, as colônias do continente tornaram-se cada vez mais envolvidas em uma rede de comércio e contatos internacionais que levaram à expansão territorial e ao crescimento econômico. A introdução da escravidão, a mudança das relações com a Inglaterra e os conflitos com os vizinhos moldaram esse desenvolvimento colonial.
II. As colônias de restauração.
Seis novas colônias proprietárias, conhecidas como as colônias de restauração, foram fundadas durante o reinado de Carlos II (1660-1685).
Charles deu a seu irmão mais novo, o duque de York, a reivindicação da área que os holandeses haviam estabelecido anteriormente como Nova Holanda.
C. As Leis do Duque.
Proclamada pelo Duque de York em 1665, as Leis de Duke toleravam a manutenção das práticas legais holandesas e permitiam que cada cidade em Nova York decidisse qual igreja apoiar com suas receitas fiscais. No entanto, nenhuma provisão foi feita para uma montagem representativa.
D. Fundação de Nova Jersey.
O duque de York regrediu grande parte de sua terra a dois amigos, limitando assim a extensão geográfica e o crescimento econômico de Nova York.
E. Pennsylvania: Um Quaker Haven.
Carlos II deu a William Penn uma bolsa em 1681 para pagar uma dívida que ele devia ao pai de Penn. Membro principal da Sociedade dos Amigos, William Penn procurou estabelecer uma colônia tolerante, humana e dinâmica.
Política Indiana de F. William Penn.
Penn tentou tratar os indianos de forma justa, o que por sua vez atraiu muitos imigrantes indianos para sua colônia. Esses recém-chegados muitas vezes entraram em confronto com os europeus também atraídos pelas políticas da Penn.
G. Fundação da Carolina.
Charles fretou Carolina em 1663. A região norte permaneceu ligada à Virgínia e desenvolveu-se diferentemente do que a área ao redor de Charleston.
III 1670-1680: uma década de crise.
A. Nova França e os iroqueses.
Os franceses reivindicaram os Grandes Lagos e o Vale do Mississippi. Essa expansão levou a França a entrar em conflito com a Confederação Iroquesa, que exerceu grande influência no que se tornou o nordeste dos Estados Unidos. A competição pelo comércio europeu desencadeou uma série de guerras na região que duraram até 1701.
B. Expansão Francesa no Vale do Mississippi.
Depois que os franceses fundaram Nova Orleans em 1718, seus postos ao longo do Mississippi se tornaram a cola do império.
C. Popé e a Revolta Pueblo.
O ressentimento com o tratamento espanhol levou um xamã chamado Popé a liderar uma revolta entre os índios Pueblo em 1680. Essa revolta foi a resistência indiana mais bem-sucedida na América do Norte.
D. As posses norte-americanas da Espanha.
Ao usar fortes e missões, a Espanha expandiu suas propriedades para incluir a Califórnia e o Texas.
E. Pressões populacionais na Nova Inglaterra.
O aumento populacional na área da Nova Inglaterra colocou grande pressão sobre a terra disponível.
F. Guerra do Rei Filipe.
Preocupado com a invasão dos colonos ingleses, o rei Filipe, chefe dos Pokanokets, liderou uma sangrenta guerra na Nova Inglaterra em 1675-1676.
Rebelião de G. Bacon.
Conflito entre colonos ingleses e indianos na Virgínia se transformou em uma luta política entre Nathaniel Bacon e o governador William Berkeley.
IV. A introdução da escravidão africana.
A. Problemas de fornecimento de mão-de-obra no Chesapeake.
Como menos homens e mulheres ingleses vieram para Chesapeake como servos contratados, os produtores de tabaco de Chesapeake procuraram uma nova fonte de trabalho para suas plantações.
B. Por que escravidão africana?
A escravidão fora praticada na Europa (embora não na Inglaterra) durante séculos. Os cristãos europeus também acreditavam que a escravização dos povos pagãos era justificável.
C. Crioulos Atlânticos nas Sociedades com Escravos.
Nas primeiras colônias inglesas, os residentes de ascendência africana variavam em status. Essas primeiras colônias do continente foram caracterizadas como "sociedades escravas" em oposição às "sociedades escravistas".
D. O Começo das Sociedades de Escravos Continentais.
Os colonos do continente começaram a importação em larga escala de africanos na década de 1670, a princípio trazendo escravos das ilhas caribenhas, mas acabaram levando-os diretamente da África.
V. A Teia do Império e o Comércio de Escravos do Atlântico.
A. Atlantic Trading System.
O tráfico de escravos tornou-se o eixo de uma complicada rede de troca que unia os povos do Atlântico.
B. Nova Inglaterra e Caribe.
A venda de alimentos e produtos de madeira da Nova Inglaterra para plantadores de açúcar no Caribe proporcionou aos habitantes da Nova Inglaterra uma importante fonte de renda.
C. A Tragédia Humana do Tráfico de Escravos.
Esta viagem que transportou africanos para as Américas provou ser particularmente mortal, com altos percentuais de escravos negros e superintendentes brancos morrendo na África ou no mar.
D. África Ocidental e o Tráfico de Escravos.
A África Ocidental experimentou profundas mudanças demográficas por causa do tráfico de escravos. Além disso, alguns reis africanos consolidaram seu poder político como resultado do papel que desempenharam no comércio.
E. Rivalidades Europeias e o Tráfico de Escravos.
Os europeus se beneficiaram mais com o tráfico de escravos e suas economias mudaram do comércio na Ásia e no Mediterrâneo para o comércio do Atlântico. Além disso, tentativas de controlar o tráfico de escravos causaram rivalidades entre as nações européias.
A Inglaterra usou suas colônias em uma tentativa de se tornar auto-suficiente, mantendo uma balança comercial favorável com outros países.
G. Atos de Navegação.
O parlamento tentou avançar suas políticas mercantilistas por meio de uma série de leis de comércio aprovadas entre 1651 e 1673. Esses atos, que fizeram da Inglaterra o centro de todo o comércio, encontraram resistência na América do Norte.
H. Junta Comercial e Plantações.
Em 1696, o Parlamento esperava melhorar sua administração sobre as colônias quando estabeleceu a Junta Comercial e as Plantações.
VI. Escravização na América do Norte.
A. Escravização no Chesapeake.
Em 1710, os africanos representavam 20% da população em Chesapeake.
B. Impacto da Escravidão no Chesapeake Anglo-Americano.
Essa concentração de escravos influenciou as atividades econômicas, os padrões demográficos e os valores sociais da região.
C. Escravidão na Carolina do Sul.
O grande número de escravos na Carolina do Sul, juntamente com semelhanças nos climas da África Ocidental e da colônia, ajudou a garantir a sobrevivência da cultura africana.
D. Arroz e Indigo.
A Carolina do Sul desenvolveu uma economia de arroz baseada principalmente em habilidades trazidas por africanos escravizados. O índigo também floresceu por causa do conhecimento adquirido pelos escravos das índias Ocidentais.
E. Escravidão indiana na Carolina do Norte e do Sul.
Os índios estavam entre as muitas pessoas mantidas em escravidão nas duas Carolinas. A amargura sobre o comércio de escravos indianos causou a Guerra Tuscarora.
Os abusos associados ao comércio de escravos indianos também levaram à Guerra de Yamasee na Carolina do Sul.
G. Escravos na América do Norte espanhola.
Autoridades espanholas na Flórida em 1693 ofereceram liberdade aos escravos fugitivos que se converteriam ao catolicismo.
H. Escravos na Louisiana francesa.
Tanto os africanos quanto os indígenas eram escravizados na Louisiana francesa, mas a Louisiana continuava sendo uma sociedade com escravos em vez de uma sociedade escravista.
I. Escravização no Norte.
O envolvimento das colônias do norte no comércio de escravos assegurou que muitas pessoas de ascendência africana vivessem naquela região.
VII. Desenvolvimento Político Colonial, Reorganização Imperial e Crise da Bruxaria.
A. Estruturas Políticas Coloniais.
Cada uma das colônias geralmente tinha um governador, alguma forma de conselho e uma assembléia. Instituições políticas locais, como reuniões de cidades ou tribunais de condado, também se desenvolveram na América.
B. Uma tradição de autonomia desafiada.
James II e seus sucessores tentaram endurecer as rédeas do governo reduzindo a autonomia política das colônias.
C. Domínio da Nova Inglaterra.
James II tentou fortalecer o controle real sobre as colônias da Nova Inglaterra, criando o Domínio da Nova Inglaterra em 1686.
D. Revolução Gloriosa na América.
As notícias da Revolução Gloriosa encorajaram os novos habitantes da Inglaterra a derrubar o governador Edmund Andros.
E. Guerra do Rei Guilherme.
Uma guerra com os franceses e seus aliados algonquianos contribuiu para os problemas da Nova Inglaterra.
F. A Crise de Feitiçaria de 1692
A caça às bruxas eclodiu em Salem, Massachusetts, em 1692. O incidente intenso, mas de curta duração, refletiu o estresse social e político do dia.
G. Alojamento para o Império.
Embora os colonos se ressentissem da nova ordem imperial, eles se ajustaram às suas exigências e restrições.
Sinal binário.
Negociação forex de Fibonacci.
Sistema de comércio do Atlântico Norte.
Bate-papo ou reclamações, norte adulto, spam, insultar outros membros, mostrar mais. Danos a menores de idade, violência ou ameaças, assédio ou invasão de privacidade, imitação de identidade atlântica, fraude ou phishing, mostrar mais. Segundo os historiadores, o elo central do comércio atlântico era: A Sugar B Tobacco C Produtos manufaturados europeus D O tráfico de escravos Questão 7 De acordo com o livro Norton, o "mais bem-sucedido e mais sustentado açúcar indiano". B Tobacco C Produtos manufaturados europeus D O tráfico de escravos Questão 7 De acordo com o livro Norton, o "mais bem sucedido e atlântico movimento de resistência indiano na América do Norte colonial foi: Guerra de Guerra do Rei Filipe A Guerra do Sistema C A Revolta de Pueblo A Questão da Rebelião de Bacon 8 Não há nenhum problema dos "pobres urbanos" nas Colônias antes da Guerra Revolucionária. Verdadeira Questão Falso 9 Os "Reguladores" das Carolinas eram: Assessores dos governadores coloniais. B O sistema oficial. C Uma facção do British Trading que acreditava que os colonos estavam negociando também a liberdade atlântica. Agricultores de terras remotas se rebelando contra os governos coloniais, muitas vezes sobre os impostos. Questão 10 Os compradores de escravos nas várias colônias muitas vezes preferiam comprar escravos de grupos étnicos africanos específicos ou localização geográfica. Tem certeza de que deseja excluir esta resposta? Agora John Miller, John Clay Miller, John Miller, Carolina do Norte, Carolina do Norte, Carolina do Norte,. Um açúcar B Tabaco C Produtos manufaturados europeus D O tráfico de escravos C porque a Grã-Bretanha e outros países tinham muitos bens e só queriam dinheiro. Questão 7 De acordo com o livro Norton, o "movimento de resistência indiano mais bem-sucedido e mais duradouro na América do Norte colonial foi: A Guerra do Rei Filipe B A Guerra Pequot C A Revolta de Pueblo D A Rebelião de Bacon Eu não tenho certeza B porque a palavra Pequot é um nativo americano Questão 8 Não houve nenhum problema dos "pobres urbanos" nas Colônias antes da Guerra Revolucionária Verdadeiro Falso FALSO Questão 9 Os "Reguladores" do norte das Carolinas eram: D é o único que faz algum sentido para D Falso, eles só queriam escravos. Muitos operadores interessados estão se perguntando se você realmente pode ganhar dinheiro com opções binárias? A resposta é que você pode de fato ganhar dinheiro na negociação de opções binárias. Você norte tem que aprender a gestão do dinheiro, leitura de gráficos, bem como o uso de indicadores Quer um vôo de última hora Perguntas relacionadas História ajuda 10pts por favor me ajude Um bom nome para um artigo de história 10pts Como hackear para apagar o histórico de navegação Resposta Perguntas Eu acho que sou o principal suspeito de um crime que não cometi? Se você é tudo sobre raça, você aceita que pessoas brancas mataram mais que qualquer outra raça? Uma pergunta sobre a cavalaria de Takeda. Como Joana d'Arc veio a ser líder? Quem é a pessoa mais malvada da história em sua opinião? Você considera a ÍNDIA UMA PRIMEIRA NAÇÃO MUNDIAL? Quais são os principais problemas enfrentados pelas pessoas no mundo hoje? Por que os idosos dizem "Os bons velhos tempos", às vezes eles não eram bons momentos? De quem Jesus aprendeu o velho ditado sobre a regra de ouro antes de cooptá-la como sua? Termos Privacidade AdChoices RSS.
O comércio de escravos do Atlântico: O que poucos livros didáticos lhe disseram - Anthony Hazard.
3 pensamentos sobre "o sistema atlântico norte do comércio atlântico & rdquo;
Goldson, Anthony C (2005) ideologia patriarcal e frequência de abuso de parceiros entre homens em grupos de tratamento agressivo.
O loop a seguir remove todos os números negativos de uma lista.
Como uma pessoa que cresceu em um trailer essa peça realmente reflete minhas próprias experiências crescendo.
Sistema de comércio do Atlântico Norte
Por mais de 40 anos, o pioneirismo da ACL tem sido a força motriz que tornou a empresa líder no comércio do Atlântico Norte e um dos nomes mais respeitados no transporte marítimo.
Um consórcio de cinco grandes companhias a vapor européias se une para atender ao alto investimento de capital envolvido na construção e operação de uma frota inovadora de navios porta-contêineres roll-on / roll-off. Esta união histórica, a primeira da era do recipiente, resulta na criação da Atlantic Container Line (ACL), servindo o comércio entre a Europa e a costa leste da América do Norte. O Atlantic Span, é o primeiro dos quatro navios G-1 (primeira geração) do ACL. Estes recipientes de 700 TEU Roll-on / Roll-off (RORO) são os mais indecentes do mundo e mudam drasticamente o conceito de transporte.
Com a introdução do primeiro sistema informatizado de transporte intermodal "Código de Rota", a ACL oferece aos expedidores um serviço porta-a-porta que atualiza continuamente as tarifas de transporte através de remessas repetidas. Seis, 900 TEU, G-2 (segunda geração) RORO / Containerships são adicionados à frota da ACL, aumentando para dez navios. A ACL torna-se a única transportadora marítima a manusear cargas conteinerizadas e não carregadas, com várias viagens por semana de / para todos os principais portos da Europa.
A ACL introduz sua alternativa simplificada ao conhecimento de embarque, "Datafreight Receipt", o primeiro sistema de documentação transmitido eletronicamente. Fornecendo aos clientes serviços de transporte terrestre de valor agregado na América do Norte, a ACL forma uma empresa de transporte de propriedade integral para melhorar as capacidades de transporte de curta distância e sua própria operação de manutenção e reparo de contêineres e chassis.
A ACL é pioneira em SPEED (Europa) e COMPASS (América do Norte), o primeiro sistema de computador "em tempo real" no setor de transporte. As embarcações do G-1 são alongadas, aumentando a capacidade para 1100 TEUs. A ACL apresenta serviço direto para os portos canadenses de Montreal e Halifax.
Para melhor atender os clientes através de um melhor desempenho no trabalho, um número recorde de funcionários da ACL participa de estudos de educação complementar e cursos de administração. Intensos estudos de projeto sobre a futura frota de navios G-3 são concluídos e novas ordens de construção são colocadas.
Cinco, recém-construídos RORO / Containerships ACL G-3 (terceira geração), o maior de seu tipo no mundo (2160 TEUs), entram no serviço do Atlântico Norte. Os G-3 são eficientes em termos de combustível e altamente flexíveis para uma ampla variedade de cargas. Os navios do G-2 são eliminados e sucateados.
recebe o Prêmio "E" do Presidente para o Serviço de Exportação por sua excelente contribuição ao programa Expansão de Exportação dos Estados Unidos. Como parte de um programa geral de racionalização no Atlântico Norte, a ACL firma um acordo de compartilhamento de espaço e de afretamento com a Hapag-Lloyd. Com foco em estratégias corporativas de longo prazo e crescimento bem-sucedido, a ACL reestrutura suas operações nos EUA. Uma subsidiária é formada para operar o setor de não-transporte da ACL em serviços de transporte, manutenção e reparo, armazenamento de contêineres, agência de linha e serviços de estiva. As embarcações G-3 são alongadas (G-3L) para 292 metros, aumentando a capacidade para 3.100 TEUs. Os navios do G-1 são eliminados e descartados.
A sede corporativa é transferida de Southampton, na Inglaterra, para South Plainfield, NJ. A propriedade original do consórcio da ACL é dissolvida. A Transatlantic, membro do Grupo Bilspedition, adquire 100% da Atlantic Container Line. Programas formais de qualidade são estabelecidos.
Em um movimento para restaurar a lucratividade, a ACL agiliza suas operações, concentrando-se exclusivamente em seu principal mercado do Atlântico Norte. Os serviços de suporte (transporte, estiva e M & R) e as funções de suporte (documentação, PDE, contabilidade e logística) nos EUA e no Canadá são terceirizados. Slot exchanges with other container lines increase weekly sailings between North America and Europe.
A public offering for ACL by Bilspedition is successful and the company is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange. ACL passes the break-even mark after several years of losses and reports a profit. Every ACL European office achieves ISO 9002 certification.
ACL embarks on a corporate strategy to make operations more independent, self-reliant and quality-driven. As a result of this strategy, ACL modifies schedules to improve transit times and reliability. ACL purchases Atlantic Conveyor from Cunard. The Atlantic Compass becomes the first oceangoing cargo vessel to be certified by the Swedish National Maritime Administration under the ISM Code (International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention).
ACL's pretax profit almost doubles. The company continues to gain financial strength. Number of shareholders increase, moving ACL to the Main List of the Oslo Stock Exchange. ACL acquires full ownership of its fleet with the final purchase of the Atlantic Cartier from CGM. The Atlantic Concert and Atlantic Companion receive ISM certification. ACL consolidates operations with one customer service center per country in North America and Europe. Preparing for the new age of electronic communication, ACL launches its web site.
ACL celebrates its thirty year anniversary of service. The ACL ATLAS software is developed. With the certification of the Atlantic Cartier and Atlantic Conveyor , ACL's entire fleet becomes ISM certified. The price of the ACL stock hits all time high on the Oslo Stock Exchange.
Ship management functions were taken over by ACL Ship Management AB. ACL share was split 2:1.
The slot charter with Polish Ocean Line ends. A third Gulf Service is added increasing our services to 6 sailings. ISM Safety and Environment Certificates for all vessels are endorsed. Phase II of ATLAS is implemented.
ACL Ship Management outsourced to B&N sjofrakt. Grimaldi Group, Naples becomes the largest ACL shareholder with 44%. All 5 vessels completed dry-docking in Brest. Additional new service increases ACL's portfolio to 7 weekly transatlantic sailings. ACL sold their stake of 49.5% in Columbus Intermodal Joint Venture. A record high Return On Capital Employed (30%), compared with (12%) in '99.
The Board of Directors increased to 6 members. ACL started a new, weekly Container/RORO transshipment service from North America to West Africa. The Grimaldi Group's shareholding exceeded the 45% threshold and launched a mandatory bid for all the outstanding shares at NOK 97 per share, then increased its stake in ACL to 81%, and then to 91%. ACL started a new, weekly RORO transshipment service between North America and the Mediterranean. ACL signed a multi-year contract with Virginia International Terminal.
ACL Deutchland GmbH became a direct subsidiary of Atlantic Container Line AB. The Oslo Stock Exchange resolved to de-list the company, following a resolution from an extraordinary shareholders meeting. ACL Belgium N. V. was renamed Atlantic Container Line Benelux, N. V., reflecting the new geographical territory covered from the Antwerp office. AIM (Automated Information Messenger), ACL's innovative e-commerce tool, is introduced. ACL begins providing agency services for the Grimaldi Group in the northern UK. ACL purchases the RORO multipurpose vessel, Grande Argentina and time charters it to the Grimaldi Group. The Trans-Atlantic Conference Agreement (TACA) receives antitrust clearance from the European Commission after years of litigation. Atlantic Container Line LLC, a U. S. limited liability company (LLC) is formed.
ACL centralized its vessel planning and haz-mat screening departments to Liverpool, England. ACL's vessels received their ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems Certification. Atlantic Cartier and Atlantic Conveyor reflagged as Swedish vessels, putting the entire fleet of GIII-Class vessels under Swedish flag. ACL purchases the Grande Brasile and time charters it to the Grimaldi Group. The ACL/Grimaldi logistical operations were combined in Antwerp. ACL resigns from the Canadian Conferences. ACL moved G-3 port operations in Halifax from Halterm to Ceres.
ACL G-3 vessels drydocked and performed extraordinary refurbishments in accordance with Lloyd's Registry's (SLEP) Ship Life Extension Program securing a classification rating consistent with vessels having an age of between five and ten years. Licensed ATLAS, ACL's computer system to an industry shipping Line.
Released I-ATLAS, ACL's NET based version of ATLAS. Purchased Eurostar Barcelona for charter to parent company Grimaldi Group. Concluded a long term contract agreement with the Port of Liverpool.
Direct Service to West Africa commenced. Purchased Grande Detroit , Grande Sicilia for long term charter to Grimaldi Group. Transfers New York RORO port operations from Maher Terminal to FAPS Terminal. Launched "TACS" Terminal Handling & Accounting System.
ACL becomes a wholly owned unit of The Grimaldi Group. ACL celebrates 40 years of service. G-3 vessels are drydocked as per their 3 year schedule. Carried a record breaking cargo volume of 265,000 teus for the year. New regulations require the use of low-sulfer fuel throughout the European operating range. Purchase of Grande Africa for charter to Grimaldi Group. ACL moved G3 port operations in New York from Maher Terminal to PNCT and in Germany from Bremerhaven to Hamburg's Unikai Terminal.
ACL sells Eurostar Barcelona . ACL purchased Grande Benelux and Grande Atlantico vessels for long term charter to Grimaldi Group. ACL purchases a new headquarters building in Westfield, NJ. New regulations enacted in Brussels totally eliminates conference system in October. Project study commences on G-4 (fourth generation) RORO/Containerships and IMA of Denmark completes the new ACL CONRO design for ACL.
ACL reflags 4 Grande class vessels, which are on time-charter to Grimaldi, from Swedish to Gibraltar Registry.
ACL commences rate restoration program after the worst year in the history of container shipping. The ACL corporate headquarters is relocated to Westfield, New Jersey. The G-3 container operations in New York moved to APM Terminal. Phase out plan of carrier supplied chassis announced in the USA. G-3's Atlantic Conveyor, Companion, Compass completed scheduled dry-dock. Ship management services for ACL's G-3 vessels switch to Bibby Ship Management.
ACL moves G-3 port operations from Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, VA. Construction of 7x80' 150T special purpose mafi trailers constructed for heavy duty project cargoes. Newly constructed, wholly-owned ACL/Grimaldi office open in Antwerp.
ACL signs contract with Hudong-Zhonghua Shipbuilding to build five G-4 RORO/Containerships.
ACL added Baltic RORO service with Grimaldi sister-company, Finn Lines. Company commences combination of European Documentation in North America & Europe. Steel cutting for first ship, Atlantic Star begins.
Complete combining worldwide documentation in Liverpool, England. G-4 Vessel, Atlantic Star is launched.
The first G3 vessel to leave service, Atlantic Companion , exits the service in July. Atlantic Star joins the Company's transatlantic service December 9, 2015 at Unikai Terminal in Hamburg after sailing from China at the end of October.
Atlantic Sail joins the Company's transatlantic service May 12, 2016 in Antwerp after sailing from China at the end of March. With the arrival of the second G4, Atlantic Compass exits service.
ATLANTIC COLONIAL COMMERCE (Western Colonialism)
In the aftermath of the voyages of Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) to the Caribbean and Central America, there arose by the eighteenth century a complex system of trade and commerce between the Americas, the Caribbean, West Africa, and Europe, a truly Atlantic colonial commerce. Moreover, this Atlantic colonial commerce was a significant part of a larger system of trade and commerce that increasingly tied South and East Asia into this European-dominated system of trade.
There were common elements in these emerging and competing systems that the great European naval and mercantile powers established. Colonies in the New World produced raw products that they traded to the Old World for manufactured goods and slaves captured in West Africa. European imperial powers all sought to control trade with their colonies, drawing on mercantilist ideas, which suggested that states could best build their power by channeling all colonial trade through metropolitan ports and merchants.
In many ways, colonial economies and transatlantic commerce were dependent upon the great cities of Atlantic Europe. And, despite harsh laws designed to protect these competing trading systems, the colonial powers often did not, or could not, strictly enforce the laws, and colonial merchants and others violated them for their own economic benefit. Thus, there existed an official system in law, not always followed, and an unofficial system in practice, not always recognized.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Hernando Cortes (1484-1547) in Mexico and Francisco Pizarro (ca. 1475-1541) in Peru discovered vast wealth, and looted it for the benefit of Spain. In the case of Pizarro, the Inca king, Atahualpa (d. 1533), paid a ransom that consisted of a room, 6.7 meters (22 feet) long by 5.1 meters (17 feet) wide, piled some 2.1 meters (7 feet) deep with gold and silver in various shapes and arrangements—a vast fortune. Pizarro took the ransom, killed Atahualpa, decimated the Incas, and established the Spanish colonial empire in western South America.
Cortes, aided by more than twenty thousand Indians who wanted to break Aztec control of central Mexico, destroyed the capital, and Mexico City arose on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Other conquistadores sought wealth elsewhere, and, as in the cases of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (ca. 1510-1554), Juan Ponce de Leon (ca. 1460-1521), and Hernando de Soto (ca. 1500-1542), were not successful. Still this great wealth filled Spanish treasure ships, and whether they safely returned to Spain, or British and other freebooters operating in the Caribbean captured and looted them, the wealth of the New World helped spur the economy of Atlantic Europe. This influx of precious metals contributed to economic growth and, although unevenly spread, increased prosperity. The influx of gold and silver combined with an increase in the production of goods, and a fall in relative prices, especially for luxury goods, ushered in a long period of generally good economic times for Atlantic European countries.
Mines in Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia continued to produce great wealth, but, in time, production declined, and the Spanish economic empire weakened. Despite Spanish efforts, silver production declined, and attacks by Dutch, French, and English pirates on the great treasure fleets increased. This resulted in a decline of the so-called Carrera de Indias (the system of armed convoys that connected Spain to Mexico, via Veracruz, and to South America via Cartagena de Indias and the Isthmus of Panama), and the costs—ships, crews, weather challenges, and piracy—remained high.
Spain had problems in developing a viable colonial economic system that strengthened both the mother country and the colonies. Spain did try to convert Native Americans to Christianity and to have them work in agriculture, raising animals and crops to feed the miners and populations in coastal cities. But diseases inadvertently imported from Europe decimated Native American populations, and the remainder resisted the Spanish.
Landholdings in the Americas were complex, including villages, ranchos, haciendas, and estancias, which made it difficult to exploit the land to produce a valuable crop for export. In theory, Spanish settlers tried to recreate the great estates that characterized the Castilian nobility, but practice varied widely. Farmers found it more profitable to produce grains, livestock, textiles, and hides for local and sometimes regional but not transnational markets. While individual colonies may have prospered, the mother country and the closed trading system it sought to establish gradually declined.
Eventually, Spain would find more profitable crops — first sugar, and later tobacco, cotton, and coffee—that its colonies in the West Indies would produce. Indeed, in 1503, Spain bought African slaves that had been brought to its Caribbean islands, introducing of a system of African slavery that was gradually to become widespread throughout Spanish America. Although the Spanish did not capture or transport African slaves, Spanish farms used many slaves because comparatively few Spanish middle-class or lower-class families emigrated to the New World. But Spain wasted the great mineral wealth it gained in the Americas in its involvement in the religious wars in Europe, and, along with Portugal, Spain became subservient to the other European Atlantic countries.
Portugal was not as systematic in occupying Brazil. Despite the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal looked around Africa, towards India, for wealth and its future. There was some value in the wood of the Brazil wood tree and the red dye it created. Still, the king would divide Brazil into fifteen captaincies, and although many of these great landholdings failed, two of them, Pernambuco and Sao Vicente, did succeed based on sugar cane farming. Raising cane was difficult and labor intensive, and in time these Portuguese plantations would rely on African slave labor. These vast plantations required a great deal of labor, and given the relatively short distance from Brazil to West Africa, Brazil became the greatest importer of West African slaves.
While Spanish explorers found precious metals in the New World, French, English, and Dutch sailors found the great fisheries near the Newfoundland coast. This also proved to be a great source of wealth. John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499) returned to England in 1496 having failed to find a Northwest Passage but with quantities of salt cod. Fish fed Europeans in winter and was important in the Catholic calendar, and the vast reserves of fish in North American waters helped create wealth for the merchants backing these fleets.
GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND THE NETHERLANDS.
Weaknesses in the Spanish colonial system encouraged British and also Dutch and French merchants and adventurers to fill gaps left by Spanish merchants. Such British ship captains as John Hawkins (1532-1595) recognized that Spain needed a workforce for the sugar plantations and the mines, and he helped start the English trade in West African slaves. The initial profits were so great that Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) secretly invested in his voyages. Despite Spanish protests and the harsh measures used against captured foreign sailors, these English privateers continued to raid Spanish treasure ships and also supply the needs of Spain’s New World colonies. Dutch and French captains soon joined the English.
At this time, the Dutch were the great traders of the world, for they possessed ships that were faster and safer—more likely to reach their planned destinations — than their competitors. In Southeast Asia, Dutch traders became wealthy shipping goods within that region, which led to Holland’s empire in the East Indies. The Dutch also dominated trade from north to southwest Europe and along the Baltic Sea. But, after losing New Amsterdam (New York) to the British, Holland was not a great player in the Atlantic economy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Nonetheless, one reason for the English Navigation Laws starting in the 1660s was to strengthen British merchants and break the power of the Dutch, a development taking place in the eighteenth century.
France established an empire in North America based on agriculture, fishing, lumbering, commerce, and fur trading. The French had strategic locations, controlling the Bay of Saint Lawrence, the Saint Lawrence River, the Ohio River, and the upper and lower Mississippi River. But France never had the population movement—not of French people and not of African slaves—to rival the population of its English colonial neighbors. In the West Indies, France held Martinue and Guadeloupe, useful for sugar, tobacco, and indigo (a blue dye used for naval uniforms), as well as for trade with the richer Spanish possessions. Still, defeat in the French and Indian War (known in Europe as the Seven Years War) ended France’s North American empire in 1763, save for two small islands, Saint Pierre and Muelon, which permitted the French to salt and dry cod captured off Newfoundland prior to the long journey back to Europe.
Although the French empire in the Americas was never as great or powerful as that of Spain or Britain, France also had its mercantilist policies. The French minister, Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), promulgated such rules as requiring French manufacturers to purchase raw materials only from French or French colonial sources, to control trade to the colonies through French ports, and to encourage French emigration to the colonies to help populate them, but France was not as successful as its major opponent in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Great Britain.
Then there was Great Britain. Britons settled along the Atlantic seaboard, and after some fits and starts a series of flourishing colonies in Virginia and Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and in other regions of the eastern seaboard arose. The British Hudson’s Bay Company secured furs and other precious items through bases north of French-held Quebec. And British colonies in the Caribbean provided sugar, tobacco, and coffee, all commodities highly valued in Europe.
It is interesting that Britain built such a successful first empire in the Americas, since British colonists discovered little gold or precious metals; they also were unable to use or exploit the native workforce to any profitable extent. British success in competing with the other European colonial powers owed much to the greater openness of its colonial system to commerce and immigration, and to the development of an extraordinary maritime power that it could use both for peaceful trade and for fighting wars.
MERCANTILISM AND THE TRIANGULAR TRADING SYSTEM.
When historians talk of the so-called triangular trading system, they usually refer to Great Britain and its colonies in the Americas and slave colonies in West Africa. By the late seventeenth century, the countries of Atlantic Europe and their colonies to the west were connected by a relatively elaborate network of trade and commerce. It is important to note that most ships followed one route, and while the system is frequently called the triangular trade system, it was a series of separate routes that fit together into a whole.
For example, ships designed to transport slaves on the so-called Middle Passage from ports in West Africa to the Caribbean could not easily and profitably convert to transport other kinds of cargo. Manufactured products from Europe and rum from North America, a byproduct of sugar production, were traded for slaves in West Africa. West African slaves, more than ten million, were forcibly shipped to the Caribbean, Jamaica being the chief trading center, and then transshipped to Brazil, British North America, and other Caribbean islands. New England and the Carolinas produced naval stores; Boston also shipped furs and fish. The Middle Colonies consumed manufactured goods, for which they exchanged tobacco, and the southern colonies added rice, indigo, and furs. It was a complex system that most benefited Great Britain, providing goods for reexport to Europe, markets for British manufactures, and a carrying trade that strengthened the growth of its navy.
Colonial trading systems were underpinned by the theory of mercantilism , which determined the ways in which European states organized commerce with their colonies. The goal was to develop a closed trading system, where colonies provided the mother country with needed raw materials and also absorbed surplus production; colonies should not compete with the mother country in producing manufactured and finished goods. Ideally, the system would produce a surplus of a valuable good that other, competing European nations would be forced to purchase using their precious metals, thereby enriching one mercantilist empire at the cost of the others. Thus some economic historians refer to mercantilism as bullionism. To enforce this theory of mercantilism, a mother country needed a powerful navy and the capacity to force its colonies to sell valuable raw materials only to merchants of the mother country and, likewise, to purchase finished products only from the same merchants, even if a competing nation was willing to pay more or to sell finished goods for less.
Such regulations inevitably created tensions. In the Americas, colonists wanted to sell their goods for the highest possible price, purchase at the lowest, and have a navy safeguard goods to market. While they were not disloyal to their respective mother countries, they were not particularly loyal either. The British colonists in North America were probably the most guilty of this practice, favoring the Dutch through the port of Saint Eustacious in the Caribbean or the French in nearby Quebec, thereby seeking the benefits of the British trading empire without its attendant costs.
Britain, as with other imperial powers, sought to control the economies of its colonies for its own benefit. The British Parliament passed a series of so-called Navigation Acts beginning in 1651 and continuing until they were revoked in the mid-nineteenth century, long after Britain’s original North American colonies had successfully revolted and established the United States. The acts required the shipping of goods to England or.
English colonial ports unless such goods were transshipped through a major port in Great Britain. The original acts in 1651 and again in the 1660s were clearly aimed at the Dutch, whose ships regularly visited colonial ports, and who thus profited from a system that the British Royal Navy protected but who avoided paying appropriate taxes and charges.
In the 1660s Britain produced a list of ”enumerated goods,” including tobacco, sugar, cotton, wool, and dyeing woods, which colonies could only trade among themselves or with Great Britain. Other European countries would have to pay marked-up prices, and thus their precious metals would flow into British ports, strengthening Britain. Later acts suppressed colonial manufactures, which would strike New York and the New England colonies especially hard had the colonists followed the law, and had British colonial agents and the Royal Navy enforced them.
DECLINE OF THE ATLANTIC COLONIAL COMMERCIAL SYSTEM.
About the time this Atlantic colonial commercial system was relatively firmly in place, great changes occurred. France and England fought four great wars for empire. In each case, a conflict in Europe led to a war between French Quebec and British North America. In the fourth and final war, the Seven Years (1756-1763) or French and Indian War (1754-1763), England hired German and other mercenaries to contain France on the European continent while seizing control of France’s holdings in North America and elsewhere. France lost Canada and was left with only two islands off the Newfoundland coast, together with its islands in the Caribbean and its foothold on the Caribbean coast of South America.
Britain’s victory over France led to the American Revolution. Britain had spent a vast fortune to defeat France, and, since one of the main beneficiaries of this overwhelming victory was Britain’s colonies in North America, King George III (1738-1820) and Parliament not unnaturally wanted the colonists to help pay the cost. The colonists demurred, citing a lack of appropriate representation in the British Parliament, and eventually the situation devolved into war. When the Revolutionary War ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Britain’s largest holdings in the Americas were now independent, and outside of any of the imperial trading blocs.
Soon thereafter Europe plunged into the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Beginning with the French Revolution in the 1790s, various combinations of European countries fought for more than two decades until, in the aftermath of the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) at Waterloo in central Belgium in 1815, a peace of sorts seemed to descend on Europe. Thereafter, the scene of colonial exploitation and hence trade would move to Asia; to the British takeover of India; to the competition in Southeast Asia between the Portuguese, the Dutch, and other late arrivers; and finally to the great prize of China, which had reached its peak and was beginning to descend in power, prestige, and control.
South Atlantic by Mariana P. Candido.
Introdução.
The Atlantic south of the equator line was the most active economic hub in the early modern world, connecting Africa, the Americas, and the early colonizing European states, Portugal and Spain. Winds and ocean currents divide the Atlantic Ocean into two systems, north and south. The South Atlantic system follows the pattern of giant wheels turning counterclockwise, favoring sail from western African ports to the Americas. The South Atlantic was dominated by merchants trading with the only Portuguese colony in the New World, Brazil. And most of the people who crossed the Atlantic between 1500 and 1820 did so in the southern part. The transatlantic slave trade, the largest forced migration in history, affected the region profoundly, in part because most of the African slaves exported from Africa (over 5.6 million people, around 45 percent), left from a single region, West Central Africa. Over 44 percent of all African slaves who survived the Middle Passage landed in Brazilian ports, that is 5.5 million individuals. Yet, most of the debate on Atlantic history centers on the North Atlantic, heavily dominated by British merchants until the 19th century. The study of Atlantic history, although clearly moving away from political boundaries and characterized by flexibility and fluidity, is very much restricted due to language barriers. South Atlantic and the history of slave trade, slavery, and Native American populations have been excluded from classic Atlantic works, such as Jacques Godechot’s Histoire de l‘Atlantue and Michael Kraus’s The Atlantic Civilization: Eighteenth-Century Origins . Recently, historians have readdressed these problems and started to introduce Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean into the Atlantic debate. Scholars focusing on the Lusophone South Atlantic, the Atlantic nominally under Portuguese control, have shown the singularities of the connections in the southern part of the ocean. One of the characteristics of the South Atlantic system is the irrelevance of the idea of Triangular Trade that dominated north of the equator. Since the 1970s historians, such as Philip Curtin, Fernando Novais, Joseph Miller, John K. Thornton, Stuart Schwartz, A. J. R. Russell-Wood, and Mary Karasch, among others, have emphasized that in the South Atlantic, bilateral trade between commercial elites in the Americas and Africa prevailed, excluding the participation of the European partners. Although the Portuguese crown regulated and taxed trade, merchants based in Brazil dominated the Atlantic commerce.
General Overviews.
Very few studies consider the South Atlantic world as a unity of analysis, but many works focus on the establishment and development of the Portuguese empire and the links between Brazil and Angola. Boxer 1952, Mauro 1997, Alencastro 2000, and Ratelband 2003 consider the Atlantic as a space for the circulation of individuals, goods, ideas, crops, and technology. Most of the scholarship on the South Atlantic is published in Portuguese (see, for example, Alencastro 2000 and Pantoja and Saraiva 1999), although this trend is starting to change. Scholars such as Russell-Wood (Russell-Wood 1992) and Novais (Novais 1981) have emphasized the autonomy of Brazil vis-à-vis the metropolis. In the past two decades, academics such as Heywood and Thornton (Heywood and Thornton 2007) placed a great deal of importance on the role of Africans and African societies in the formation of the Atlantic world. Benton 2000 compares the similarities of legal systems in the South Atlantic.
Alencastro, Luis Felipe. O Trato dos Viventes: Formação do Brasil no Atlântico Sul, Séculos XVI e XVII . São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2000.
One of the most influential recent books on the South Atlantic. The ocean is seen as a space unifying populations settled on its shores rather than separating them. Focuses on the formation of Brazil as part of the South Atlantic and intrinsically connected with Angola and the Spanish colonies. Stresses the economic relationships between merchant elites in Brazilian and African ports.
Benton, Lauren. “Legal Regime of the South Atlantic World, 1400–1750: Jurisdictional Complexity as Institutional Order.” Journal of World History 11.1 (2000): 27–56.
Important study that explores the similarities between Portuguese legislation and legal codes in Africa regarding crimes and enslavement.
Boxer, C. R. Salvador de Sá and the Struggle for Brazil and Angola, 1602–1682 . London: Athlone, 1952.
A classic on the Portuguese Atlantic Empire. Through the life of the official Salvador de Sá, Boxer explores the competition between Portugal and Holland and the Angolan-Brazilian slave trade in the 17th century.
Heywood, Linda M., and John K. Thornton. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundations of the Americas, 1585–1660 . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press 2007.
Recent addition to the scholarship on the Atlantic world that stresses the role of Africans as central agents in the 16th and 17th centuries. Discusses the establishing of slavery in the Americas, emphasizing the large presence of central Africans.
Mauro, Frédéric. Portugal, o Brasil e o Atlântico, 1570–1670 . 2 vols. Lisbon: Estampa, 1997.
Originally published in French in 1983, places the study of Brazil in an Atlantic perspective, emphasizing historical connections and interactions. Explores the rise of the Portuguese empire and its intimate link with maritime expansion and its overseas colonies in its early phase.
Novais, Fernando. Portugal e Brasil na Crise do Antigo Sistema Colonial (1777–1808) . São Paulo: Editora HUCITEC, 1981.
Classic study that emphasizes the importance of the Atlantic market for the formation of Brazil and its relative autonomy.
Pantoja, Selma, and José Flávio S. Saraiva, eds. Angola e Brasil nas Rotas do Atlântico Sul . Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand, 1999.
One of the few studies that discuss the concept of South Atlantic and its centrality for the history of Brazil and Angola. A well-organized collection of essays that stress the links between societies around the Atlantic.
Ratelband, Klaas. Os Holandeses no Brasil e na Costa Africana: Angola, Kongo e São Tomé, 1600–1650 . Lisbon: Vega, 2003.
Explores the role of the Dutch in the South Atlantic systems, including the island of São Tomé in the analysis. Argues that the Dutch presence in Brazil and African ports was part of the same process.
Russell-Wood, A. J. R. A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808 . Manchester, NH: Carcanet, 1992.
Influential study on the constant movement of people and commodities within the Portuguese empire. Places the Portuguese as the early agents in a globalized world.
Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login.
How to Subscribe.
O Oxford Bibliographies Online está disponível por assinatura e acesso perpétuo às instituições. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here.
Por mais de 40 anos, o pioneirismo da ACL tem sido a força motriz que tornou a empresa líder no comércio do Atlântico Norte e um dos nomes mais respeitados no transporte marítimo.
Um consórcio de cinco grandes companhias a vapor européias se une para atender ao alto investimento de capital envolvido na construção e operação de uma frota inovadora de navios porta-contêineres roll-on / roll-off. Esta união histórica, a primeira da era do recipiente, resulta na criação da Atlantic Container Line (ACL), servindo o comércio entre a Europa e a costa leste da América do Norte. O Atlantic Span, é o primeiro dos quatro navios G-1 (primeira geração) do ACL. Estes recipientes de 700 TEU Roll-on / Roll-off (RORO) são os mais indecentes do mundo e mudam drasticamente o conceito de transporte.
Com a introdução do primeiro sistema informatizado de transporte intermodal "Código de Rota", a ACL oferece aos expedidores um serviço porta-a-porta que atualiza continuamente as tarifas de transporte através de remessas repetidas. Seis, 900 TEU, G-2 (segunda geração) RORO / Containerships são adicionados à frota da ACL, aumentando para dez navios. A ACL torna-se a única transportadora marítima a manusear cargas conteinerizadas e não carregadas, com várias viagens por semana de / para todos os principais portos da Europa.
A ACL introduz sua alternativa simplificada ao conhecimento de embarque, "Datafreight Receipt", o primeiro sistema de documentação transmitido eletronicamente. Fornecendo aos clientes serviços de transporte terrestre de valor agregado na América do Norte, a ACL forma uma empresa de transporte de propriedade integral para melhorar as capacidades de transporte de curta distância e sua própria operação de manutenção e reparo de contêineres e chassis.
A ACL é pioneira em SPEED (Europa) e COMPASS (América do Norte), o primeiro sistema de computador "em tempo real" no setor de transporte. As embarcações do G-1 são alongadas, aumentando a capacidade para 1100 TEUs. A ACL apresenta serviço direto para os portos canadenses de Montreal e Halifax.
Para melhor atender os clientes através de um melhor desempenho no trabalho, um número recorde de funcionários da ACL participa de estudos de educação complementar e cursos de administração. Intensos estudos de projeto sobre a futura frota de navios G-3 são concluídos e novas ordens de construção são colocadas.
Cinco, recém-construídos RORO / Containerships ACL G-3 (terceira geração), o maior de seu tipo no mundo (2160 TEUs), entram no serviço do Atlântico Norte. Os G-3 são eficientes em termos de combustível e altamente flexíveis para uma ampla variedade de cargas. Os navios do G-2 são eliminados e sucateados.
recebe o Prêmio "E" do Presidente para o Serviço de Exportação por sua excelente contribuição ao programa Expansão de Exportação dos Estados Unidos. Como parte de um programa geral de racionalização no Atlântico Norte, a ACL firma um acordo de compartilhamento de espaço e de afretamento com a Hapag-Lloyd. Com foco em estratégias corporativas de longo prazo e crescimento bem-sucedido, a ACL reestrutura suas operações nos EUA. Uma subsidiária é formada para operar o setor de não-transporte da ACL em serviços de transporte, manutenção e reparo, armazenamento de contêineres, agência de linha e serviços de estiva. As embarcações G-3 são alongadas (G-3L) para 292 metros, aumentando a capacidade para 3.100 TEUs. Os navios do G-1 são eliminados e descartados.
A sede corporativa é transferida de Southampton, na Inglaterra, para South Plainfield, NJ. A propriedade original do consórcio da ACL é dissolvida. A Transatlantic, membro do Grupo Bilspedition, adquire 100% da Atlantic Container Line. Programas formais de qualidade são estabelecidos.
Em um movimento para restaurar a lucratividade, a ACL agiliza suas operações, concentrando-se exclusivamente em seu principal mercado do Atlântico Norte. Os serviços de suporte (transporte, estiva e M & R) e as funções de suporte (documentação, PDE, contabilidade e logística) nos EUA e no Canadá são terceirizados. Slot exchanges with other container lines increase weekly sailings between North America and Europe.
A public offering for ACL by Bilspedition is successful and the company is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange. ACL passes the break-even mark after several years of losses and reports a profit. Every ACL European office achieves ISO 9002 certification.
ACL embarks on a corporate strategy to make operations more independent, self-reliant and quality-driven. As a result of this strategy, ACL modifies schedules to improve transit times and reliability. ACL purchases Atlantic Conveyor from Cunard. The Atlantic Compass becomes the first oceangoing cargo vessel to be certified by the Swedish National Maritime Administration under the ISM Code (International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention).
ACL's pretax profit almost doubles. The company continues to gain financial strength. Number of shareholders increase, moving ACL to the Main List of the Oslo Stock Exchange. ACL acquires full ownership of its fleet with the final purchase of the Atlantic Cartier from CGM. The Atlantic Concert and Atlantic Companion receive ISM certification. ACL consolidates operations with one customer service center per country in North America and Europe. Preparing for the new age of electronic communication, ACL launches its web site.
ACL celebrates its thirty year anniversary of service. The ACL ATLAS software is developed. With the certification of the Atlantic Cartier and Atlantic Conveyor , ACL's entire fleet becomes ISM certified. The price of the ACL stock hits all time high on the Oslo Stock Exchange.
Ship management functions were taken over by ACL Ship Management AB. ACL share was split 2:1.
The slot charter with Polish Ocean Line ends. A third Gulf Service is added increasing our services to 6 sailings. ISM Safety and Environment Certificates for all vessels are endorsed. Phase II of ATLAS is implemented.
ACL Ship Management outsourced to B&N sjofrakt. Grimaldi Group, Naples becomes the largest ACL shareholder with 44%. All 5 vessels completed dry-docking in Brest. Additional new service increases ACL's portfolio to 7 weekly transatlantic sailings. ACL sold their stake of 49.5% in Columbus Intermodal Joint Venture. A record high Return On Capital Employed (30%), compared with (12%) in '99.
The Board of Directors increased to 6 members. ACL started a new, weekly Container/RORO transshipment service from North America to West Africa. The Grimaldi Group's shareholding exceeded the 45% threshold and launched a mandatory bid for all the outstanding shares at NOK 97 per share, then increased its stake in ACL to 81%, and then to 91%. ACL started a new, weekly RORO transshipment service between North America and the Mediterranean. ACL signed a multi-year contract with Virginia International Terminal.
ACL Deutchland GmbH became a direct subsidiary of Atlantic Container Line AB. The Oslo Stock Exchange resolved to de-list the company, following a resolution from an extraordinary shareholders meeting. ACL Belgium N. V. was renamed Atlantic Container Line Benelux, N. V., reflecting the new geographical territory covered from the Antwerp office. AIM (Automated Information Messenger), ACL's innovative e-commerce tool, is introduced. ACL begins providing agency services for the Grimaldi Group in the northern UK. ACL purchases the RORO multipurpose vessel, Grande Argentina and time charters it to the Grimaldi Group. The Trans-Atlantic Conference Agreement (TACA) receives antitrust clearance from the European Commission after years of litigation. Atlantic Container Line LLC, a U. S. limited liability company (LLC) is formed.
ACL centralized its vessel planning and haz-mat screening departments to Liverpool, England. ACL's vessels received their ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems Certification. Atlantic Cartier and Atlantic Conveyor reflagged as Swedish vessels, putting the entire fleet of GIII-Class vessels under Swedish flag. ACL purchases the Grande Brasile and time charters it to the Grimaldi Group. The ACL/Grimaldi logistical operations were combined in Antwerp. ACL resigns from the Canadian Conferences. ACL moved G-3 port operations in Halifax from Halterm to Ceres.
ACL G-3 vessels drydocked and performed extraordinary refurbishments in accordance with Lloyd's Registry's (SLEP) Ship Life Extension Program securing a classification rating consistent with vessels having an age of between five and ten years. Licensed ATLAS, ACL's computer system to an industry shipping Line.
Released I-ATLAS, ACL's NET based version of ATLAS. Purchased Eurostar Barcelona for charter to parent company Grimaldi Group. Concluded a long term contract agreement with the Port of Liverpool.
Direct Service to West Africa commenced. Purchased Grande Detroit , Grande Sicilia for long term charter to Grimaldi Group. Transfers New York RORO port operations from Maher Terminal to FAPS Terminal. Launched "TACS" Terminal Handling & Accounting System.
ACL becomes a wholly owned unit of The Grimaldi Group. ACL celebrates 40 years of service. G-3 vessels are drydocked as per their 3 year schedule. Carried a record breaking cargo volume of 265,000 teus for the year. New regulations require the use of low-sulfer fuel throughout the European operating range. Purchase of Grande Africa for charter to Grimaldi Group. ACL moved G3 port operations in New York from Maher Terminal to PNCT and in Germany from Bremerhaven to Hamburg's Unikai Terminal.
ACL sells Eurostar Barcelona . ACL purchased Grande Benelux and Grande Atlantico vessels for long term charter to Grimaldi Group. ACL purchases a new headquarters building in Westfield, NJ. New regulations enacted in Brussels totally eliminates conference system in October. Project study commences on G-4 (fourth generation) RORO/Containerships and IMA of Denmark completes the new ACL CONRO design for ACL.
ACL reflags 4 Grande class vessels, which are on time-charter to Grimaldi, from Swedish to Gibraltar Registry.
ACL commences rate restoration program after the worst year in the history of container shipping. The ACL corporate headquarters is relocated to Westfield, New Jersey. The G-3 container operations in New York moved to APM Terminal. Phase out plan of carrier supplied chassis announced in the USA. G-3's Atlantic Conveyor, Companion, Compass completed scheduled dry-dock. Ship management services for ACL's G-3 vessels switch to Bibby Ship Management.
ACL moves G-3 port operations from Portsmouth, Virginia to Norfolk, VA. Construction of 7x80' 150T special purpose mafi trailers constructed for heavy duty project cargoes. Newly constructed, wholly-owned ACL/Grimaldi office open in Antwerp.
ACL signs contract with Hudong-Zhonghua Shipbuilding to build five G-4 RORO/Containerships.
ACL added Baltic RORO service with Grimaldi sister-company, Finn Lines. Company commences combination of European Documentation in North America & Europe. Steel cutting for first ship, Atlantic Star begins.
Complete combining worldwide documentation in Liverpool, England. G-4 Vessel, Atlantic Star is launched.
The first G3 vessel to leave service, Atlantic Companion , exits the service in July. Atlantic Star joins the Company's transatlantic service December 9, 2015 at Unikai Terminal in Hamburg after sailing from China at the end of October.
Atlantic Sail joins the Company's transatlantic service May 12, 2016 in Antwerp after sailing from China at the end of March. With the arrival of the second G4, Atlantic Compass exits service.
ATLANTIC COLONIAL COMMERCE (Western Colonialism)
In the aftermath of the voyages of Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) to the Caribbean and Central America, there arose by the eighteenth century a complex system of trade and commerce between the Americas, the Caribbean, West Africa, and Europe, a truly Atlantic colonial commerce. Moreover, this Atlantic colonial commerce was a significant part of a larger system of trade and commerce that increasingly tied South and East Asia into this European-dominated system of trade.
There were common elements in these emerging and competing systems that the great European naval and mercantile powers established. Colonies in the New World produced raw products that they traded to the Old World for manufactured goods and slaves captured in West Africa. European imperial powers all sought to control trade with their colonies, drawing on mercantilist ideas, which suggested that states could best build their power by channeling all colonial trade through metropolitan ports and merchants.
In many ways, colonial economies and transatlantic commerce were dependent upon the great cities of Atlantic Europe. And, despite harsh laws designed to protect these competing trading systems, the colonial powers often did not, or could not, strictly enforce the laws, and colonial merchants and others violated them for their own economic benefit. Thus, there existed an official system in law, not always followed, and an unofficial system in practice, not always recognized.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
Hernando Cortes (1484-1547) in Mexico and Francisco Pizarro (ca. 1475-1541) in Peru discovered vast wealth, and looted it for the benefit of Spain. In the case of Pizarro, the Inca king, Atahualpa (d. 1533), paid a ransom that consisted of a room, 6.7 meters (22 feet) long by 5.1 meters (17 feet) wide, piled some 2.1 meters (7 feet) deep with gold and silver in various shapes and arrangements—a vast fortune. Pizarro took the ransom, killed Atahualpa, decimated the Incas, and established the Spanish colonial empire in western South America.
Cortes, aided by more than twenty thousand Indians who wanted to break Aztec control of central Mexico, destroyed the capital, and Mexico City arose on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Other conquistadores sought wealth elsewhere, and, as in the cases of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (ca. 1510-1554), Juan Ponce de Leon (ca. 1460-1521), and Hernando de Soto (ca. 1500-1542), were not successful. Still this great wealth filled Spanish treasure ships, and whether they safely returned to Spain, or British and other freebooters operating in the Caribbean captured and looted them, the wealth of the New World helped spur the economy of Atlantic Europe. This influx of precious metals contributed to economic growth and, although unevenly spread, increased prosperity. The influx of gold and silver combined with an increase in the production of goods, and a fall in relative prices, especially for luxury goods, ushered in a long period of generally good economic times for Atlantic European countries.
Mines in Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia continued to produce great wealth, but, in time, production declined, and the Spanish economic empire weakened. Despite Spanish efforts, silver production declined, and attacks by Dutch, French, and English pirates on the great treasure fleets increased. This resulted in a decline of the so-called Carrera de Indias (the system of armed convoys that connected Spain to Mexico, via Veracruz, and to South America via Cartagena de Indias and the Isthmus of Panama), and the costs—ships, crews, weather challenges, and piracy—remained high.
Spain had problems in developing a viable colonial economic system that strengthened both the mother country and the colonies. Spain did try to convert Native Americans to Christianity and to have them work in agriculture, raising animals and crops to feed the miners and populations in coastal cities. But diseases inadvertently imported from Europe decimated Native American populations, and the remainder resisted the Spanish.
Landholdings in the Americas were complex, including villages, ranchos, haciendas, and estancias, which made it difficult to exploit the land to produce a valuable crop for export. In theory, Spanish settlers tried to recreate the great estates that characterized the Castilian nobility, but practice varied widely. Farmers found it more profitable to produce grains, livestock, textiles, and hides for local and sometimes regional but not transnational markets. While individual colonies may have prospered, the mother country and the closed trading system it sought to establish gradually declined.
Eventually, Spain would find more profitable crops — first sugar, and later tobacco, cotton, and coffee—that its colonies in the West Indies would produce. Indeed, in 1503, Spain bought African slaves that had been brought to its Caribbean islands, introducing of a system of African slavery that was gradually to become widespread throughout Spanish America. Although the Spanish did not capture or transport African slaves, Spanish farms used many slaves because comparatively few Spanish middle-class or lower-class families emigrated to the New World. But Spain wasted the great mineral wealth it gained in the Americas in its involvement in the religious wars in Europe, and, along with Portugal, Spain became subservient to the other European Atlantic countries.
Portugal was not as systematic in occupying Brazil. Despite the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal looked around Africa, towards India, for wealth and its future. There was some value in the wood of the Brazil wood tree and the red dye it created. Still, the king would divide Brazil into fifteen captaincies, and although many of these great landholdings failed, two of them, Pernambuco and Sao Vicente, did succeed based on sugar cane farming. Raising cane was difficult and labor intensive, and in time these Portuguese plantations would rely on African slave labor. These vast plantations required a great deal of labor, and given the relatively short distance from Brazil to West Africa, Brazil became the greatest importer of West African slaves.
While Spanish explorers found precious metals in the New World, French, English, and Dutch sailors found the great fisheries near the Newfoundland coast. This also proved to be a great source of wealth. John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499) returned to England in 1496 having failed to find a Northwest Passage but with quantities of salt cod. Fish fed Europeans in winter and was important in the Catholic calendar, and the vast reserves of fish in North American waters helped create wealth for the merchants backing these fleets.
GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND THE NETHERLANDS.
Weaknesses in the Spanish colonial system encouraged British and also Dutch and French merchants and adventurers to fill gaps left by Spanish merchants. Such British ship captains as John Hawkins (1532-1595) recognized that Spain needed a workforce for the sugar plantations and the mines, and he helped start the English trade in West African slaves. The initial profits were so great that Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) secretly invested in his voyages. Despite Spanish protests and the harsh measures used against captured foreign sailors, these English privateers continued to raid Spanish treasure ships and also supply the needs of Spain’s New World colonies. Dutch and French captains soon joined the English.
At this time, the Dutch were the great traders of the world, for they possessed ships that were faster and safer—more likely to reach their planned destinations — than their competitors. In Southeast Asia, Dutch traders became wealthy shipping goods within that region, which led to Holland’s empire in the East Indies. The Dutch also dominated trade from north to southwest Europe and along the Baltic Sea. But, after losing New Amsterdam (New York) to the British, Holland was not a great player in the Atlantic economy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Nonetheless, one reason for the English Navigation Laws starting in the 1660s was to strengthen British merchants and break the power of the Dutch, a development taking place in the eighteenth century.
France established an empire in North America based on agriculture, fishing, lumbering, commerce, and fur trading. The French had strategic locations, controlling the Bay of Saint Lawrence, the Saint Lawrence River, the Ohio River, and the upper and lower Mississippi River. But France never had the population movement—not of French people and not of African slaves—to rival the population of its English colonial neighbors. In the West Indies, France held Martinue and Guadeloupe, useful for sugar, tobacco, and indigo (a blue dye used for naval uniforms), as well as for trade with the richer Spanish possessions. Still, defeat in the French and Indian War (known in Europe as the Seven Years War) ended France’s North American empire in 1763, save for two small islands, Saint Pierre and Muelon, which permitted the French to salt and dry cod captured off Newfoundland prior to the long journey back to Europe.
Although the French empire in the Americas was never as great or powerful as that of Spain or Britain, France also had its mercantilist policies. The French minister, Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), promulgated such rules as requiring French manufacturers to purchase raw materials only from French or French colonial sources, to control trade to the colonies through French ports, and to encourage French emigration to the colonies to help populate them, but France was not as successful as its major opponent in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Great Britain.
Then there was Great Britain. Britons settled along the Atlantic seaboard, and after some fits and starts a series of flourishing colonies in Virginia and Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and in other regions of the eastern seaboard arose. The British Hudson’s Bay Company secured furs and other precious items through bases north of French-held Quebec. And British colonies in the Caribbean provided sugar, tobacco, and coffee, all commodities highly valued in Europe.
It is interesting that Britain built such a successful first empire in the Americas, since British colonists discovered little gold or precious metals; they also were unable to use or exploit the native workforce to any profitable extent. British success in competing with the other European colonial powers owed much to the greater openness of its colonial system to commerce and immigration, and to the development of an extraordinary maritime power that it could use both for peaceful trade and for fighting wars.
MERCANTILISM AND THE TRIANGULAR TRADING SYSTEM.
When historians talk of the so-called triangular trading system, they usually refer to Great Britain and its colonies in the Americas and slave colonies in West Africa. By the late seventeenth century, the countries of Atlantic Europe and their colonies to the west were connected by a relatively elaborate network of trade and commerce. It is important to note that most ships followed one route, and while the system is frequently called the triangular trade system, it was a series of separate routes that fit together into a whole.
For example, ships designed to transport slaves on the so-called Middle Passage from ports in West Africa to the Caribbean could not easily and profitably convert to transport other kinds of cargo. Manufactured products from Europe and rum from North America, a byproduct of sugar production, were traded for slaves in West Africa. West African slaves, more than ten million, were forcibly shipped to the Caribbean, Jamaica being the chief trading center, and then transshipped to Brazil, British North America, and other Caribbean islands. New England and the Carolinas produced naval stores; Boston also shipped furs and fish. The Middle Colonies consumed manufactured goods, for which they exchanged tobacco, and the southern colonies added rice, indigo, and furs. It was a complex system that most benefited Great Britain, providing goods for reexport to Europe, markets for British manufactures, and a carrying trade that strengthened the growth of its navy.
Colonial trading systems were underpinned by the theory of mercantilism , which determined the ways in which European states organized commerce with their colonies. The goal was to develop a closed trading system, where colonies provided the mother country with needed raw materials and also absorbed surplus production; colonies should not compete with the mother country in producing manufactured and finished goods. Ideally, the system would produce a surplus of a valuable good that other, competing European nations would be forced to purchase using their precious metals, thereby enriching one mercantilist empire at the cost of the others. Thus some economic historians refer to mercantilism as bullionism. To enforce this theory of mercantilism, a mother country needed a powerful navy and the capacity to force its colonies to sell valuable raw materials only to merchants of the mother country and, likewise, to purchase finished products only from the same merchants, even if a competing nation was willing to pay more or to sell finished goods for less.
Such regulations inevitably created tensions. In the Americas, colonists wanted to sell their goods for the highest possible price, purchase at the lowest, and have a navy safeguard goods to market. While they were not disloyal to their respective mother countries, they were not particularly loyal either. The British colonists in North America were probably the most guilty of this practice, favoring the Dutch through the port of Saint Eustacious in the Caribbean or the French in nearby Quebec, thereby seeking the benefits of the British trading empire without its attendant costs.
Britain, as with other imperial powers, sought to control the economies of its colonies for its own benefit. The British Parliament passed a series of so-called Navigation Acts beginning in 1651 and continuing until they were revoked in the mid-nineteenth century, long after Britain’s original North American colonies had successfully revolted and established the United States. The acts required the shipping of goods to England or.
English colonial ports unless such goods were transshipped through a major port in Great Britain. The original acts in 1651 and again in the 1660s were clearly aimed at the Dutch, whose ships regularly visited colonial ports, and who thus profited from a system that the British Royal Navy protected but who avoided paying appropriate taxes and charges.
In the 1660s Britain produced a list of ”enumerated goods,” including tobacco, sugar, cotton, wool, and dyeing woods, which colonies could only trade among themselves or with Great Britain. Other European countries would have to pay marked-up prices, and thus their precious metals would flow into British ports, strengthening Britain. Later acts suppressed colonial manufactures, which would strike New York and the New England colonies especially hard had the colonists followed the law, and had British colonial agents and the Royal Navy enforced them.
DECLINE OF THE ATLANTIC COLONIAL COMMERCIAL SYSTEM.
About the time this Atlantic colonial commercial system was relatively firmly in place, great changes occurred. France and England fought four great wars for empire. In each case, a conflict in Europe led to a war between French Quebec and British North America. In the fourth and final war, the Seven Years (1756-1763) or French and Indian War (1754-1763), England hired German and other mercenaries to contain France on the European continent while seizing control of France’s holdings in North America and elsewhere. France lost Canada and was left with only two islands off the Newfoundland coast, together with its islands in the Caribbean and its foothold on the Caribbean coast of South America.
Britain’s victory over France led to the American Revolution. Britain had spent a vast fortune to defeat France, and, since one of the main beneficiaries of this overwhelming victory was Britain’s colonies in North America, King George III (1738-1820) and Parliament not unnaturally wanted the colonists to help pay the cost. The colonists demurred, citing a lack of appropriate representation in the British Parliament, and eventually the situation devolved into war. When the Revolutionary War ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Britain’s largest holdings in the Americas were now independent, and outside of any of the imperial trading blocs.
Soon thereafter Europe plunged into the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Beginning with the French Revolution in the 1790s, various combinations of European countries fought for more than two decades until, in the aftermath of the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) at Waterloo in central Belgium in 1815, a peace of sorts seemed to descend on Europe. Thereafter, the scene of colonial exploitation and hence trade would move to Asia; to the British takeover of India; to the competition in Southeast Asia between the Portuguese, the Dutch, and other late arrivers; and finally to the great prize of China, which had reached its peak and was beginning to descend in power, prestige, and control.
South Atlantic by Mariana P. Candido.
Introdução.
The Atlantic south of the equator line was the most active economic hub in the early modern world, connecting Africa, the Americas, and the early colonizing European states, Portugal and Spain. Winds and ocean currents divide the Atlantic Ocean into two systems, north and south. The South Atlantic system follows the pattern of giant wheels turning counterclockwise, favoring sail from western African ports to the Americas. The South Atlantic was dominated by merchants trading with the only Portuguese colony in the New World, Brazil. And most of the people who crossed the Atlantic between 1500 and 1820 did so in the southern part. The transatlantic slave trade, the largest forced migration in history, affected the region profoundly, in part because most of the African slaves exported from Africa (over 5.6 million people, around 45 percent), left from a single region, West Central Africa. Over 44 percent of all African slaves who survived the Middle Passage landed in Brazilian ports, that is 5.5 million individuals. Yet, most of the debate on Atlantic history centers on the North Atlantic, heavily dominated by British merchants until the 19th century. The study of Atlantic history, although clearly moving away from political boundaries and characterized by flexibility and fluidity, is very much restricted due to language barriers. South Atlantic and the history of slave trade, slavery, and Native American populations have been excluded from classic Atlantic works, such as Jacques Godechot’s Histoire de l‘Atlantue and Michael Kraus’s The Atlantic Civilization: Eighteenth-Century Origins . Recently, historians have readdressed these problems and started to introduce Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean into the Atlantic debate. Scholars focusing on the Lusophone South Atlantic, the Atlantic nominally under Portuguese control, have shown the singularities of the connections in the southern part of the ocean. One of the characteristics of the South Atlantic system is the irrelevance of the idea of Triangular Trade that dominated north of the equator. Since the 1970s historians, such as Philip Curtin, Fernando Novais, Joseph Miller, John K. Thornton, Stuart Schwartz, A. J. R. Russell-Wood, and Mary Karasch, among others, have emphasized that in the South Atlantic, bilateral trade between commercial elites in the Americas and Africa prevailed, excluding the participation of the European partners. Although the Portuguese crown regulated and taxed trade, merchants based in Brazil dominated the Atlantic commerce.
General Overviews.
Very few studies consider the South Atlantic world as a unity of analysis, but many works focus on the establishment and development of the Portuguese empire and the links between Brazil and Angola. Boxer 1952, Mauro 1997, Alencastro 2000, and Ratelband 2003 consider the Atlantic as a space for the circulation of individuals, goods, ideas, crops, and technology. Most of the scholarship on the South Atlantic is published in Portuguese (see, for example, Alencastro 2000 and Pantoja and Saraiva 1999), although this trend is starting to change. Scholars such as Russell-Wood (Russell-Wood 1992) and Novais (Novais 1981) have emphasized the autonomy of Brazil vis-à-vis the metropolis. In the past two decades, academics such as Heywood and Thornton (Heywood and Thornton 2007) placed a great deal of importance on the role of Africans and African societies in the formation of the Atlantic world. Benton 2000 compares the similarities of legal systems in the South Atlantic.
Alencastro, Luis Felipe. O Trato dos Viventes: Formação do Brasil no Atlântico Sul, Séculos XVI e XVII . São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2000.
One of the most influential recent books on the South Atlantic. The ocean is seen as a space unifying populations settled on its shores rather than separating them. Focuses on the formation of Brazil as part of the South Atlantic and intrinsically connected with Angola and the Spanish colonies. Stresses the economic relationships between merchant elites in Brazilian and African ports.
Benton, Lauren. “Legal Regime of the South Atlantic World, 1400–1750: Jurisdictional Complexity as Institutional Order.” Journal of World History 11.1 (2000): 27–56.
Important study that explores the similarities between Portuguese legislation and legal codes in Africa regarding crimes and enslavement.
Boxer, C. R. Salvador de Sá and the Struggle for Brazil and Angola, 1602–1682 . London: Athlone, 1952.
A classic on the Portuguese Atlantic Empire. Through the life of the official Salvador de Sá, Boxer explores the competition between Portugal and Holland and the Angolan-Brazilian slave trade in the 17th century.
Heywood, Linda M., and John K. Thornton. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundations of the Americas, 1585–1660 . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press 2007.
Recent addition to the scholarship on the Atlantic world that stresses the role of Africans as central agents in the 16th and 17th centuries. Discusses the establishing of slavery in the Americas, emphasizing the large presence of central Africans.
Mauro, Frédéric. Portugal, o Brasil e o Atlântico, 1570–1670 . 2 vols. Lisbon: Estampa, 1997.
Originally published in French in 1983, places the study of Brazil in an Atlantic perspective, emphasizing historical connections and interactions. Explores the rise of the Portuguese empire and its intimate link with maritime expansion and its overseas colonies in its early phase.
Novais, Fernando. Portugal e Brasil na Crise do Antigo Sistema Colonial (1777–1808) . São Paulo: Editora HUCITEC, 1981.
Classic study that emphasizes the importance of the Atlantic market for the formation of Brazil and its relative autonomy.
Pantoja, Selma, and José Flávio S. Saraiva, eds. Angola e Brasil nas Rotas do Atlântico Sul . Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand, 1999.
One of the few studies that discuss the concept of South Atlantic and its centrality for the history of Brazil and Angola. A well-organized collection of essays that stress the links between societies around the Atlantic.
Ratelband, Klaas. Os Holandeses no Brasil e na Costa Africana: Angola, Kongo e São Tomé, 1600–1650 . Lisbon: Vega, 2003.
Explores the role of the Dutch in the South Atlantic systems, including the island of São Tomé in the analysis. Argues that the Dutch presence in Brazil and African ports was part of the same process.
Russell-Wood, A. J. R. A World on the Move: The Portuguese in Africa, Asia, and America, 1415–1808 . Manchester, NH: Carcanet, 1992.
Influential study on the constant movement of people and commodities within the Portuguese empire. Places the Portuguese as the early agents in a globalized world.
Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login.
How to Subscribe.
O Oxford Bibliographies Online está disponível por assinatura e acesso perpétuo às instituições. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here.
Комментариев нет:
Отправить комментарий